Essay Interpretations of American History - 600 Words

Interpretations of American History The world is full of rich culture, diversity and experiences unique to each individual. When determining the validity of historic accounts we must factor in that particular historian’s point of view, which should be characterized by ethnicity, idealogy, theoretical or methodological preference. With these factors views of the past often vary from person to person. In this essay I will be discussing the four different stages that shaped the writing of American history over the last 400 years. According to Couvares, the writing of American history has passed through four stages: the providential, the rationalist, the nationalist, and the professional. The providential stage took place during the†¦show more content†¦Bancroft believed that Anglo-Saxons were racially destined to lead and spread freedom across the globe. With the establishment of John Hopkins University, college education became more common among middle-class Americans, however only wealthy white men still only had access to that kind of education. This new wave of historians insisted that knowledge of history and physics were of equal importance. The final stage of American history and progression according to Couvares, was the professional stage. Professional scholars rose to prominence from 1910-1945. These historians believed that modernity, industrialization, urbanization, and class conflict had fundamentally changed society. Charles Beard argued that â€Å"the constitution was not the product of wise men intent on balancing liberty and order, but a clique of wealthy merchants and landowners who wanted a central government strong enough to defend their privileges against the unruly masses.† (Couvares 77-2). Beard also thought that many of the major conflicts in society were between economic interest groups. Many critics found flaws in his idealogy, but at the same time it inspired them to find answers to questions that plagued the people. Over the past 400 years, these historians all had different stances on how they thought to improve society. With the mix of cultural backgrounds, and ethnicities no two viewpoints will ever be exactly the same. CouvaresShow MoreRelatedInterpretations Of American History, A Collaborative Team Of Four Editors791 Words   |  4 PagesIn Interpretations of American History, a collaborative team of four editors (Francis G. Couvares, Martha Saxton, Gerald N. Grob, and George Athan Billias) seek to educate any student of history on the various perspectives on any one said historical issue. The editors sum up the entire book with â€Å"These volumes reflect our understanding that history is an act of interpretation. † Essentially, this book offers a multitude of benefits for those who wish to further study history, but at the same timeRead MorePsychology Observation Aspects: Biases, Assumptions, and Interpretations833 Words   |  3 PagesIntroduction Biases, assumptions and interpretations affect all areas of study. In Science and History, for example, sexual, racial/cultural and personal experience biases significantly influence research. In addition, Perspectivism can empty research findings of all meaning, depending on whether the researcher believes facts exist independent of perspective. Acceptance of universal Perspectivism, combined with triangulated comparison from several sources, can result in approximate truth. Body Read MoreAnalysis Of The Smithsonians National Museum Of American History1588 Words   |  7 Pagesof interpretation used to depict such a complex topic. In not displaying â€Å"the crude physicality of actual artifacts, or even replicas, Smithsonian curators avoided possible confrontation and accentuated themes and history believed to unite all immigrant groups, regardless of origin or circumstance† (Burns 113). A Nation of Nations could have pushed more at the boundaries of what was considered safe presentation to deal with difficult topics such as minority representations of Native American andRead MoreThe Interpretation Of The South On Alternate Voices, And Gave A Firm Framework On Establishing The Different Perspectives878 Words   |  4 PagesFranklin opened the interpretation of the South to alternate voices, and gave a firm framework on establishing the different perspectives relevant for Woodward’s experiential â€Å"not one South† thesis. 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Ample consideration should be given to theRead MoreThe Fundamental Knowledge Of Knowledge1637 Words   |  7 PagesThe fundamental knowledge issue arising from this question is whether knowledge is consistent throughout time. Can we progress through applying knowledge generated decades ago? To determine whether knowledge generated from areas such as history and science can predict the future, it is necessary to know whether the knowledge acquired through these areas of knowing is consistent, irrespective of changes in time and culture, amongst other factors. Through considering this question, we are gaining insightRead MoreRace, By John Davidson892 Words   |  4 Pagesand identities many Latin American countries try to distance themselves from the black/white dichotomy. One example can come from Dominican Republic, Black Dominicans due not use the term black. Instead many choose terms mullatto or trigeà ±o (tan) to distance themselves from the term Negro (black). Each of these distinctions has claimed to come from sources however each identity emphasizes different elements that can appeal to different historians. Many Latin American historians will use the manyRead MoreThe Rights Of A Free State1118 Words   |  5 PagesWerning Mrs. Lobenstein American Lit 2 December 2014 Amendment II â€Å"A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.† The Right to Bear Arms According to the Second Amendment, in the Bill of Rights, the rights of the people to keep and bear arms have been enacted since December 15th, 1791. Across the 223 years this amendment has been around, there has been an abundance of history behind the Second AmendmentRead MoreMulticulturalism And The Future Of American Education1206 Words   |  5 PagesBlack studies, Multiculturalism and the future of American Education reaction paper In this article, Black Studies, Multiculturalism and the Future of American Education, they are seen as topics that are been discussed in an in depth view of Manning Marable. However, African American studies as it’s been mentioned are viewed as the study of the culture and traditions of blacks throughout North America, Africa, the Caribbean, Brazil and Latin America. Furthermore Manning argued that there are threeRead MoreThe Codex Chimalpahin, Interpretation And Critisicm1315 Words   |  6 Pages THE CODEX CHIMALPAHIN, INTERPRETATION AND CRITISICM Christina Kunz Honors World Society in Literature and Film October 1, 2017 Domingo Francisco de San Antà ³n Muà ±Ãƒ ³n was born in the generations that followed the fall of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capitol, by the conquistadors in 1521 . His catholicized name hides his Nahua background: Chimalpahin Quauhtlehuanitzin . At a young age, Chimalpahin began his education at a Dominican convent in central Mexico. His education included

Essay on Did Gender Make a Difference within Slavery

Did Gender Make a Difference within Slavery? Within slavery there were harsh conditions which Frederick Douglass tries to convey in his biography Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Within this narrative he dezribes how men and women slaves were treated differently by their masters. Women were abused by their master, physically, sexually, and mentally, while men were mostly abused physically and mentally. Many slave women suffered regular beatings. Frederick Douglass mentions several different instances where female slaves who he knew where beaten regularly. One of Douglasss first overseers, Mr. Plummer, would beat Douglasss aunt on a daily basis. Mr. Plummer whipped Douglasss aunt so often he began a†¦show more content†¦Men and women alike were physically abused by their masters, deserving or not. Not only did women suffer harsh physical abuse, they were also sexually abused. Many of the masters had relations with their female servants. Frederick Douglasss own father was white, and it was rumored that his father was his original master. Douglass believed the sexual abuse that masters inflicted was done too obviously to administer to their own lusts, and make a gratification of their wicked desires profitable as well as pleasurable (21). He believed female slaves were not only workers for the masters but also outlets for sexual frustration. Women did not only endure sexual abuse by their masters, they also had the responsibility of bearing children to increase their masters wealth. These women were treated as animals, being bought for child bearing. Frederick Douglass exemplifies this attitude toward female slaves through the story of a slave named Caroline. Douglass stated that her master, Mr. Covey bought her, as he said, for a breeder (72). When she produced a set of twins, Mr. Covey seemed to be highly pleased .... nothing they could do for Caroline during her confinement was too good, or too hard to be done (73). Men did not have the misfortune to be used for this purpose. Many male slaves enjoyed the fact that these women were present. It gave them the chance toShow MoreRelatedThe Original Riot Grrrls By Elizabeth Cady Stanton1385 Words   |  6 Pagesfor women in the United States of America, but how did this constitutional change happen? Many females prior to this accomplishment faced struggles from external forces that denied their rights and capabilities. Feminism and equal rights were and still are prominent in American society. In order to provide women of the future what is rightfully theirs, women during the 1700s have taken control of their opinions and used their strong-will to make the necessary changes in American society. During theRead MoreThe Division Of The Nineteenth Century1387 Words   |  6 PagesThe Perpetuated Division in the Nineteenth Century The nineteenth century was an era that a lot of memorable history events had happened. 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In Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, HarrietRead MoreStanding Solider, Kneeling Slaves By Kirk Savage Essay1402 Words   |  6 Pagesproblems Savage proposes of slavery, racism, and gender inequality. Savage touches on the basis that blackness was virtually equated with slavery so almost every African American was a slave in the 1860s who worked hard in different fields of labor. African Americans were not only already treated very unfairly because of their place in society as a slave but they were also dehumanized and not looked at as a contributing factor of society. He further discusses this idea that within slave labor, slavesRead MoreMajor Causes And Consequences Of The American Civil War1443 Words   |  6 Pagesbecause of a discrepancy on how to handle slavery. The difference in opinion is most likely a result of political, economic, and religious tension within the country. 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Nevertheless, there are also many dissimilarities between these narratives, including gender based treatments, main character’s first steps towards freedom, and main character’s personality. According to their narratives, Douglass and Jacobs were subjected to diverse treatments in their lives based on their gender. For example, Douglass’s masters whipped, starved, and tortured Douglass. However, unlike Jacobs, he was not exposed to rape. As DouglassRead MoreBlack Sexual Politics1702 Words   |  7 Pagescritical analysis of blacks in America and blacks as a race. The book analyzes this race on various levels, and these levels include, but are not limited to the following: the concept of â€Å"new† racism, gender ideology within the race, and the potential for progression of the racial politics. Collins makes many points and observations about the effect that blacks’ interactions have on each other and their view in society. 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Goods Spend Analysis Free Essays

Individual Assignment Goods Spend Analysis Prepared by: Anjela Li Date: January 13, 2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction3 2. Goods Spend Analysis: How is it conducted? 4 3. We will write a custom essay sample on Goods Spend Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now Key Triggers5 4. How spend analysis fits the procurement strategy6 1. Introduction Spend analysis  is the process of collecting, cleansing, classifying and analyzing expenditure data with the purpose of reducing procurement costs, improving efficiency and monitoring compliance. It can also be leveraged in other areas of business such as inventory management, budgeting and planning, and product development. There are three core areas of spend analysis – visibility, analysis and process. By leveraging all three, companies can generate answers to the crucial questions affecting their spending, including: ? What am I really spending? ? With whom am I spending it? ? Am I getting what’s been promised for that spend? Spend analysis is often viewed as part of a larger domain known as  spend management  which incorporates spend analysis, commodity management and  strategic sourcing. Companies perform spend analysis for several reasons. The core business driver for most organizations is profitability. In addition to improving compliance and reducing cycle times, performing detailed spend analysis helps companies find new areas of savings that previously went untapped, and hold onto past areas of savings that they have already negotiated. Benefits of Spend Data Management: [pic] 2. Goods Spend Analysis: How is it conducted? 3 major components of a spend analysis: Component |Activity |Typical deliverable | |(a)Opportunity assessment |Collect and validate category spend data/diagnose |High level spend analysis | | |company spend |Savings opportunity ranges | | |Analyze industry/market trends |Sourcing project plan | | |Prioritize and sequence opportunities |Sourcing maturity assessment | |(b)Creation of category profile |Define category spend by supplier, spend, |Detailed baseline spend analysis | |(c)Marketplace assessment |region/customer |Preferred parts list | | |Determine category requirements, specifications, |Industry and supply market analyses | | |forecast |Total cost components | | |Determine total cost components |Potential switching/change out osts (ex: replacement cost| | |Conduct detailed supply market and value chain analysis |of propane tanks when switching suppliers should be | | |Determine supplier universe and identify potential |considered when creating a sourcing strategy and in the | | |suppliers |analysis for potential savings) | | |Collect feedback from stakeholders regarding supplier | | | |performance | | 3. Key Triggers ? Spend by type of goods: provides visibility of what the money is spent for and enables further analysis to apply 80/20 rule to define the top 20% of goods that represent 80% of spend. A proper spend analysis by type of goods typically requires splitting main product categories into subcategories to provide visibility of â€Å"hidden† costs ? Spend by a Business Unit: provides visibility of spend by end customer, i. e. ho spends the money, compliance rate to the possible existing preferred supplier agreements and whether or not the spend is fragmented within the organization ? Spend by Supplier (enterprise view): allows understanding of who the money is spent with, how fragmented spend is within the supplier base and whether an opportunity exists for volume concentration ? Spend by Supplier (by Business Unit): allows visibility of the breakdown of spend among suppliers within a specific Business Unit. This helps to define whether there are common suppliers that are being used across all Business Units and whether an opportunity exists to gain a better price leverage by consolidating the volume for specific products across all Business Units. This type of analysis also prompts sourcing specialists to engage with stakeholders to understand whether there were any supplier performance concerns that might potentially impact distribution of spend and therefore, should be addressed and considered at the stage of building new strategic sourcing strategies 4. How spend analysis fits the procurement strategy A proper spend analysis allows to build effective sourcing strategies, which can be leverage oriented, relationship oriented or a combination of both (see Figure 1 below). The sourcing strategy for the category will depend on three factors: a) How competitive is the supplier marketplace? b) How aligned are your organization’s users on the need versus opportunity to test incumbent relationships? ) What alternatives to a competitive assessment exist for your organization in this or connected categories? Typically, if there are categories with High/Low Business impact and Low Market complexity the left side of the Sourcing Gemstone will be used: Volume Concentration, Best Price Evaluation or Global sourcing. If more complex markets are confronted (Ex: sole source supplier situation, single source supplier due to complexities in the product specifications and/or industry regulations, lack of substitute suppliers or products, other suppliers vs. the incumbent had critical performance issues in the past, long term industry shortage due to the economic downturn in the global market, etc. we may want to consider Product Specification Improvements, Joint Process Improvements or Relationship Restructuring strategies. It is also important to acknowledge that commonly, the higher the maturity of a specific category, the lower is the opportunity to capture high net dollar savings through a competitive event effort and the more is the need to focus on strengthening the relationship with your preferred supplier and reap the benefits of a joint effort in areas related to the right hand side of the Gemstone (Ex: p roduct standardization, electronic invoicing, product innovation, etc. ) Figure 1 [pic] Supply Market Complexity (High) ———————– High Business Impact How to cite Goods Spend Analysis, Papers

The Cultures of Colonial North America free essay sample

The Enlightment and the Great Awakening were both huge impacts on the colonial regions of North America. During the Enlightment, the thinkers were arguing that the universe was governed by natural laws that people could understand and apply to their own advantage. The writers were emphasizing rationality, harmony, and order. Sons were being sent to college during this time and many people were reading and writing. However the Enlightment did cause a decline in religious devotion. The Great Awakening was a response to the Enlightment because it challenged the rationalist approach to religion by having ministers preach more emotionally than rationally, by having people find relief in religious enthusiasm, and by having like-minded men be trained for the ministry. Before the Great Awakening, people were listening to ministers who were preaching rationally and not emotionally. The poor young people began to grow disaffected as they were forced to postpone marriages because of scarcity and expense of the land needed to farm a household. We will write a custom essay sample on The Cultures of Colonial North America or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They refused to attend church meetings and would instead gather together at night for frolics, increasing their discontent. In the 1730s, Reverend Jonathan Edwards began a movement to challenge the rationalist approach on religion. He made the young people his target. He believed that their hearts needed to be touched in a way that appealed to their emotions. He preached and church membership began to grow with people wondering what they could do to be saved. People then began to listen to ministers preaching emotionally, rather than to ministers preaching rationally. People began to feel relief in religious enthusiasm. The people were going through economic and social stresses at this time, being unable to find land and unsure whether to marry, and to participate in the promise of a growing economy. This widespread colonial revival of religion became known as the Great Awakening. It is seen as the American version of the Protestant Reformation. Religious leaders established this with calls for piety and purity. During the Great Awakening, ministers began to be taught to preach emotionally. William Tennent established a school in Pennsylvania to train like-minded men for the ministry. His Log College evolved in the College of New Jersey. William Tennent toured with George Whitefield to deliver the famous sermon The Dangers of an Unconverted Ministry. This sermon told Protestants to examine the religious convictions of their own ministries. Conflict did break out, and in some regions the church hierarchy divided into separate organizations. The Enlightment and the Great Awakening go hand-in-hand in impacting the colonies of North America. The Enlightment was a time when there was a decline in religious devotion, but the Great Awakening was a colonial revival in the spread of religion. The Great Awakening was a response to the Enlightment because it challenged the rationalist approach to religion by having ministers preach more emotionally than rationally, by having people find relief in religious enthusiasm, and by having like-minded men be trained tor the ministry. The Great Awakening helped many economically and socially stressed people find relief in religion.

Crime And Punishment Characterization Essays -

Crime And Punishment: Characterization In Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov's dream about the mare can be used as a vehicle to probe deep into his mentality to discover how he really feels inside. The dream suggests that Raskolnikov is a "split" man; after all, his name in Russian means "split". He has a cruel and thoughtless side as well as a caring, compassionate side to his personality. Through the dream and the symbols therein, a reader can cast Raskolnikov, as well as other characters from Crime And Punishment, into any of the various parts in the dream. Each part that a character takes on leads to a different conclusion about that character. Raskolnikov himself "fits" into the positions of Mikolka, the child, and the mare. If Mikolka, the drunken owner of the mare, were to represent Raskolnikov, then the mare would most probably represent Alyona Ivanovna. The senseless beating of the mare by Mikolka is similar to the brutal attack on Alyona by Rodion. (It should be noted that both Alyona and the mare were female.) These heartless attacks foreshadow the crime that Raskolnikov is contemplating. Dostoevsky unveils Raskolnikov's cruel side during this dream, if it is to be interpreted in this way. On the same token, Raskolnikov's compassionate side could be represented by the little boy. The child, watching the beating, realizes the absurdity of it. He even rushes to Mikolka, ready to punish him for killing the mare. This illustrates Rodion's internal struggle while contemplating the murder of Alyona. His humane side, the child, tells him to live and let live. And his "extraordinary" side, according to his definition, tells him that he should eliminate Alyona altogether, for the good of man kind. On the other side of the coin, Raskolnikov could be represented by the mare itself. However, the burden which the mare must carry (the cart, the people, etc.) could represent two separate things, depending on if it is viewed in context before or after the actual murder. Before the murder, the burden could represent the moral question that is plaguing Rodion. Should he kill Alyona? Or should he leave her be? Because of the importance of this question to Raskolnikov, it weighs him down heavily at first. However, later on, he rashly decides to kill Alyona. If looked upon after the murder, the load on the mare in the dream could represent the mental burden placed on Rodion. He had a burden of guilt on him, and he could not justify the murder according to his own theory. Therefore, he was tormented by the otherwise insignificant statements and actions of others in the novel. Even though Porfiry Petrovitch did not have many of the people purposely harassing Raskolnikov by mentioning various facets of the murder, it was as if those who were "beating" the truth out of him were pawns of Porfiry (or that of truth and the law in general), just as those beating the life out of the mare were pawns of Mikolka (or that of cruelty). By this reasoning, a parallel may also be drawn between the mare and Rodion. This is not to say that the dream does not have other significances. It is possible that Mikolka represents Porfiry also. Mikolka beat the mare until it died; Porfiry beat Raskolnikov mentally until he confessed. There are also other interpretations that can be made. Despite other possible interpretations, Raskolnikov may be represented by all three main characters in the dream: Mikolka, the child, and the mare. Each representation brings to mind a new side of Rodion Romanovitch that must be considered in order to understand him fully.

Vieled Beauty essays

Vieled Beauty essays Walt Disney's film Beauty and the Beast in comparison to Roman and Greek Mythologies tale of "Cupid and Psyche." Walt Disney said it best when he stated, "True beauty comes from within." Through precise design and articulation, the creators of the film Beauty and the Beast formed an elegant tale of true love found within the darkness of the unknown. Belle, the films beautiful book-loving heroine, starred as the main character in this Walt Disney classic Beauty and the Beast. It is throughout this film that Belle searches for more than her provincial life yet strangely finds what she was looking for confined within a cold dark mysterious palace. The search for internal beauty, the involvement of sacrifice and the curiosity of women can be traced back to the early days of Roman and Greek Mythology and can be found in present day tales. The passion for obtaining a more fulfilling was also found within Psyche, the protagonist in the Roman and Greek Mythological tale titled "Cupid and Psyche." Like Belle, Psyche found herself in search for more than what she already had in life. Both magnif icent tales, Beauty and the Beast and "Cupid and Psyche," share similar concepts about beauty found from within and a woman's desire to curiously search for more than her provincial life. However, both tales have their differences in content and pattern to create a different affect of each tale. In the tale of Beauty and the Beast, Belle is faced with a terribly frightening situation; she gave up her father and her freedom all in one day. Belle courageously offered herself as the Beast's prisoner in exchange for her father's freedom, and as frightened as she may have been, she grew to feel safe within his courtiers. The servants of the palace, Cogsworth the clock, Lumier the candlestick, Mrs. Potts the teapot and Chip the tea cup, served Belle with charming and graceful hospitality, making her feel more and more comfortable with her new li...

Corporate Group Structures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Corporate Group Structures - Essay Example The discussion will commence with a brief overview of the background of company law, specifically the concept of a company as a separate, autonomous corporate individual. Then the most significant cases in the current state of corporate group structure and liability will be considered: These are a triumvirate of cases involving Cape Industries Plc. Subsequently, analysis of these decisions and their application and interpretation in the last decade will be examined as well as criticism of these three cases will be entertained. This portion of the discussion will expand beyond issues of case law and take an holistic approach to corporate group structure by considering issues such as corporate social responsibility (CSR) and the ethical implications of corporate group structures. Aron Salomon incorporated his boot-making business in 1892. Salomon Co. quickly became insolvent. A series of court cases and appeals took the case to the House of Lords ruling that Salomon Co. and Aron Salomon were not one and the same, â€Å""The very object of the creation of the company and the transfer to it of the business is, that whereas the liability of the partners for debts incurred was without limit, the liability of the members for the debts incurred by the company shall be limited,† concluded the House of Lords.4 No individuals could be held liable for the debts of Salomon Co., a separate, legal, corporate entity. This case was based on the Companies Act 1862 that clearly established the corporation as a separate legal entity. Salomon v Salomon Co. established that this was the legal situation even if one individual was a majority owner and principally responsible for the direction of the corporation also. According to Villalta Puig Gonzalo, â€Å"The case firmly established that upon incorporation, a new and separate artificial entity comes into existence.... a corporation is a distinct person with its own personality separate

Popular Culture Media The Production of Popular Culture ( See Essay

Popular Culture Media The Production of Popular Culture ( See questionsessay thesis below) - Essay Example Retro presents history as an essential entity presented in a historical way giving historical references while reviving associated trends acts in conditions that comes under the conditions of discontinuity, rupture, and multiplicity. The boost in consumerism through retro vision and philosophy is because of the synchronous understanding that the retro would present the past as inspiration and bringing back the realities of life in a reflection. Though there is nothing like historic or authentic but is powerful enough to present the whole as a fusion of old and new. The aspects that are selected from the past are only positive. This position is not too concerned with the diversity within retro but looks at the various manifestations separately. The extreme swinging of retro of the present would led to the emergence of for instance from 1950s ladylike style with its prim to pretty look in the mid-1990s would help in bein

The concept of having a conceptual framework in accounting is useless Essay

The concept of having a conceptual framework in accounting is useless - Essay Example However, there many critics who argue that the use of the conceptual framework in accounting is useless. The aim of this paper is to critically explain why many people think that the use of the conceptual framework in accounting is useless. Conceptual framework in accounting has received a lot of criticism whereby most of its critics claim that the framework does not provide adequate basis for setting standards. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has proved this inadequacy, which is becoming a more rule-based approach. Nevertheless, there is empirical prove that has been collected to support this argument against accounting conceptual framework (Hines 2011, p. 45). Out of the five characteristics of accounting conceptual framework, most people only rely on one characteristics, reliability, on accounting statements to make financial decisions. In addition, accounting familiarity influences many people to rely on or use financial statements instead of finding other accurate ways for finding this information. Therefore, it is not only that accounting conceptual framework needs alterations, but also changes to help come up with accounting standards that are principles-based. Implementing principles-based stand ards means that many users will be able to use irrespective of their backgrounds. Many people have been criticized FASB for not advising organizations to give out information that is useful and interpretable to the users of financial statements. Its conceptual framework is the main source of all accounting standards (Hines 2011, p. 78). Therefore, the conceptual framework for accounting must exemplify several qualitative characteristics in order to ensure that the financial reporting is able to provide financial statement users with information that is adequate for decision making. The accounting conceptual framework of the United States was founded in the year 1980. There are five key characteristics of accounting information, which

The Issue Of Elder Abuse And Neglect Social Work Essay

The Issue Of Elder Abuse And Neglect Social Work Essay Elder abuse and neglect is a critical health care issue that must be brought to the attention of health care providers and older adults family members. Adults older than 65 who live at home or in long-term care facilities may be at risk for abuse. Nurses should be aware of the causes, screening questions, symptoms of abuse, and resources in the community. Armed with information and a better understanding about the issue, nurses can minimize the devastating effects of abuse on older adults and their families. Every man, woman, and child deserves to be treated with respect and caring. Individuals of all ages deserve to be protected from harm by caregivers (American Psychological Association, 2006). Significant policy developments during the past 20 years have focused on eliminating abuse. However, a deficit in health care providers knowledge and clinical skill application remains. The purpose of this article is to define and describe the kinds of abuse, their potential clinical presentations, and theoretical explanations for abuse to enhance nurses knowledge and understanding of their role in its assessment and management in older adults. BACKGROUND Abuse is defined as the infliction of injury, unreasonable confinement, intimidation, or punishment, with resulting physical harm, pain, or mental anguish (Table 1). It can also be the willful deprivation by a caregiver of goods or services that are necessary to maintain physical or mental health (American Psychological Association, 2006). Elder abuse and neglect has plagued society for centuries but only recently has the issue come to the attention of health care providers, law enforcement agencies, and protective services. Fewer research studies exist about the maltreatment of older adults than about other forms of family violence, including child abuse, rape, and intimate partner violence. The earliest reports of elder abuse and neglect in the United Kingdom in the 1970s dramatized case reports of the phenomenon, termed Granny battering. The health care community and the public were shocked and appalled. A decade later, studies confirmed that the problem was common in the United S tates as well. In the late 1970s, the U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging issued a series of reports on abuse and neglect occurring in nursing homes. In 1981, the U.S. House of Representatives Select Committee on Aging conducted hearings in which victimized older adults gave firsthand testimony of their experiences with abuse. In 1986, the Institute of Medicine published recommendations for preventing the maltreatment of older adults in institutions, and several years later, the Elder Abuse Task Force was created by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The task force developed an action plan for the identification and prevention of maltreatment of older adults in their own homes, health care facilities, and communities. The action plan included data collection, research, technical assistance, training, and public education. The National Center on Elder Abuse was established as part of the Administration on Agings Elder Care Campaign. Adult Protective Services progra ms now exist in every state to serve vulnerable adults, particularly older adults, who may be at risk for abuse and neglect. Many law enforcement agencies and Offices of the District Attorney have investigative staff specifically trained to address abuse of older adults and other vulnerable populations, in collaboration with health care and protective service professionals. Such actions have led to increased public and health care provider awareness about elder abuse and neglect. Researchers have also sought to grasp the full scope and causes of maltreatment among older adults. Laws that require health care providers to report suspected cases have been instituted in nearly every state. The Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (2006) standards for emergency departments and ambulatory care centers call for improved identification and management of elder abuse, in addition to intimate partner violence and child abuse. As the U.S. population ages, demands placed on health care systems to care for older adults are increasing. More than 36 million people who live in the United States are older than age 65, and 600,000 older adults will require assisted living (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Aging, 2006). Currently, there are approximately 17,000 nursing homes in the United States, with 1.6 million residents (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Aging, 2004). Unfortunately, older adults are becoming victims of intentional abuse and neglect within their own homes, as well as in assisted living and long-term care facilities. Each year in the United States, 1 to 2 million adults older than age 65 are injured, exploited, or mistreated by their caregivers (National Research Council Panel to Review Risk and Prevalence of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 2003). One community-based, cross-sectional survey reported that 32 of every 1,000 older adults reported that they had experienced some form of maltreatment at least once since reaching age 65 (Pillemer Finkelhor, 1988). Underreporting is typical with all kinds of abuse, and it is estimated that only 1 in 14 elder maltreatment cases are reported. Health care providers can expect to see a steady increase in the number of cases of elder maltreatment as the older adult population rapidly increases. THEORIES OF ELDER ABUSE Elder abuse is a complex problem with multiple risks and causes. Dysfunctional family lives, cultural issues, and caregiver inadequacies have been implicated as contributing factors. Awareness of such factors may help nurses understand and anticipate situations where maltreatment may be preventable. Several theories attempt to explain the existence and increasing occurrence of elder abuse. The transgenerational, or social learning, theory asserts that violence is a learned behavior. Individuals who have witnessed or been victims of family violence are more likely to try to resolve challenging and difficult life situations with violent tactics they learned in their formative growth. Although 90% of perpetrators of elder abuse are reported to be family members, this cannot account for all cases (Fulmer, Guadagno, Bitondo, Dyer, Connolly, 2004). Situational theory supports the idea that the greater the burden on caregivers, the more likely caregivers are to abuse. Exchange theory addresses the dependence of older adults on their caregivers as a risk of abuse, along with inadequate methods of problem solving as an established pattern of family behavior. Political economic theory addresses the changing roles of older adults. Their loss of independence and income may cause them to look to others for care and support (Fulmer et al., 2004). Psychopathology of the caregiver theory studies caregivers with severe emotional or mental health problems or addictions that put the older adults for whom they care at risk of being abused. For example, a caregiver with a mental health problem who cares for a frail older adult with cognitive impairment is a dangerous combination and may lead to resistant behavior and maltreatment. Although theoretical frameworks cannot explain all cases of elder maltreatment, they can provide a foundation for nurses to begin to understand the combination of factors responsible for the occurrence of elder abuse and initiate a holistic plan of care. NURSING ASSESSMENT INTERVENTIONS Nurses are in an ideal position to play a significant role in the detection, management, and prevention of elder maltreatment and may be the only individuals outside of the family who have regular contact with an older adult. Nurses are uniquely qualified to perform physical and psychological assessments, order confirmatory diagnostic tests (e.g., blood tests, x-rays), and collaborate with physicians and protective services. They may authorize services, such as home health care, or recommend hospital admission as they initiate further investigation by the appropriate local agencies. Opportunities for abuse detection and intervention occur daily in health care settings. In institutional settings, nurses may monitor patient health and perform health history interviews and physical, psychological, sexual, and financial abuse assessments that may be crucial to elicit reports, expose or prevent abuse, and intervene for patients safety (Wieland, 2000). Nurses and other health care providers are part of an interprofessional team collaborating to ensure appropriate, sensitive, and safe outcomes for older adult patients. Institutional maltreatment occurs in long-term care facilities, board-and-care homes, and other assisted-living facilities. Institutional medical directors, private practitioners, nurses, and all health care workers in daily contact with older adults have a responsibility to identify, treat, and prevent abuse. Abuse may be perpetrated by a staff member, another patient, an intruder or a visitor, or a family caregiver. Abuse may include failure to implement a plan of care or provide treatment, unauthorized use of physical or chemical restraints, and use of medication or isolation for punishment or staff convenience. Nurses must be aware of patient diagnoses, medical orders for care, and medications and their side effects to recognize what is suspicious and needs further evaluation or warrants a report to supervisors. However, most elder maltreatment does not occur in institutions but in the home at the hands of a caregiver, often a family member. Unless nurses are educated about abuse and how to observe suspicious injuries, elder abuse may be difficult to detect. Definitions of the kinds of abuse and their signs and symptoms should be included in the training and education of family members and health care workers who care for older adults. Older adults experiencing abuse may be unable to communicate clearly, their bruises may be attributed to the aging process, or they may be fearful and hesitant to report abuse (Wieland, 2000). Indications of physical abuse should signal health care providers to evaluate for other kinds of abuse, such as sexual abuse. In addition to inadequate information, training, and the caregivers experience of caring for older adults, older adults are at risk for maltreatment due to other vulnerabilities. Older adult residents in institutions are typically dependent and chronically ill and may have cognitive, visual, and auditory impairments. They are usually more frail than are younger patients and may not have regular visitors who monitor their mental status, physical condition, or health care. In older adults, each vulnerability increases their mortality risk (Fulmer et al., 2004). Co-existing conditions and medical diagnoses may lead to worse outcomes for older adults who are abused. They may have a decreased ability to heal after injury and may experience greater trauma from physical injuries than do younger people. Their bones are more brittle and tissue more easily bruised, abraded, and lacerated with minimal trauma. Injured older adults differ from the younger population in terms of cause of injury, physical and psychological responses to abuse and injury, and outcomes. Dementia is common in 50% of residents of long-term care facilities (National Center for Health Statistics, 1985), and cognitive impairments often cause older adults to behave in a more resistant manner toward caregivers. Impaired cognition, along with insufficient resources, staff shortages, high staff turnover, and inadequate supervision and training, may increase the risk of elder maltreatment. In addition, societal ignorance about required standards for quality care and victimized older adults acceptance of abusive or neglectful behavior can lead to exacerbation of elder abuse in institutions. Routine questions related to elder abuse and neglect can be incorporated into daily nursing practice. Diminished cognitive capacity does not necessarily negate older adults ability to describe maltreatment. It is always reasonable for nurses to ask about abuse or neglect. A brief mental status examination can be helpful in evaluating patients cognitive status. Assessment for elder abuse should include caregiver, as well as victim, evaluation. Nurses should conduct interviews and examinations with the patient first, in a private setting separate from the caregiver. Clinical settings should have a protocol for the detection and assessment of elder maltreatment. Protocols should consist of a narrative, checklist, or standardized forms that enable rapid screening for elder abuse and provide guidelines for sound documentation that may help disclose patterns of abuse over time and will withstand scrutiny in court. Basic demographic questions should be included and should allow the interviewer to determine the family composition and socioeconomic status. Interviews should proceed from general questions that assess the patients sense of well-being to those focusing on specific kinds of abuse. Common signs and symptoms of maltreatment should be evaluated (Table 2). Elder abuse screening instruments are summarized by Fulmer et al. (2004). Questions recommended by Wieland (2000) for general abuse screening and assessment include: * Do you feel safe where you are living? * Who is responsible for your care? * Do you often disagree with your caregiver(s)? If so, what happens? * Does anyone scold or shout at you, slap or hit you, or leave you alone and make you wait for care or food? After general screening questions, more specific questions about kinds of abuse may follow: * Has anyone ever touched you without your consent? * Has anyone ever made you do things you did not want to do? * Has anyone ever taken something that was yours without asking? * Have you ever signed any documents that you did not understand? Health care providers do not have to prove that elder maltreatment has occurred. They need to screen and document suspicious verbal and physical findings, which may be as simple as stating that the patient seems to have health or personal problems and needs assistance. Sound documentation may include drawings of injuries on body diagrams or photographs to support written reports. Suspicious claims for abuse and neglect may be difficult to quantify. Diagnosis of elder maltreatment depends on education about abuse and application of that knowledge by the multidisciplinary team of health care providers, law enforcement agencies, advocates, and patients. Protocols for elder abuse screening, assessment of risk factors, and documentation should be posted in all health care facilities. ABUSE AND THE LAW National standards for care in nursing homes are based on the Nursing Home Reform Act of 1987. The law is part of the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1987, often referred to as OBRA 87. The intent of the law is to promote high-quality care and prevent substandard care. The law also seeks to ensure that the rights of nursing home residents are respected. These include: * The right of protection against Medicaid discrimination. * The right to participate in health care decisions and to give or withhold informed consent for particular interventions. * The right to safeguards to reduce inappropriate use of physical and chemical restraints. * The right for provisions to ensure proper transfers or discharges. * The right to full access to a personal physician, long-term care ombudsman, and other advocates. * The right to be free from verbal, sexual, physical, or mental abuse, corporal punishment, and involuntary seclusion. * The right to be free from physical restraints or psychoactive drugs administered for the purpose of discipline or convenience. Nearly all states have mandatory reporting laws that require health care professionals and paraprofessionals to report suspected elder abuse and neglect to a designated authority. Some state laws specify that after authorities have been alerted to suspected elder abuse or neglect, an agent of the state must make an onsite investigation in an attempt to corroborate the report. Uniform reporting systems are established, and cases are assigned and investigated by protective services in a timely fashion. Cases are assigned and investigated by protective services in a timely fashion. Nurses may play an important role in preventing and identifying elder abuse, as well as in the subsequent investigation. CONCLUSION Elder abuse is a significant problem in the United States and often goes unreported and unrecognized. Elder abuse may be physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, or financial. Immediate care, overnight housing, and care in a safe location, in addition to long-term care and home-delivered food, may be necessary. Elder abuse may be a minor issue that can be easily resolved or it can result in severe and life-threatening debilitation. The more knowledge health care providers have, the more likely they are to institute strategies for abuse prevention and management. No matter how minor or severe the abuse, nurses have a duty to assess elderly patients according to recommended protocols and report suspected abuse to designated authorities. The multidisciplinary team then works together to help resolve the issue. The application of knowledge about elder abuse includes screening, assessment, and sound documentation in an attempt to enhance the quality of life and maximize the functional ability of older adults. [Sidebar]

Internet Addicts in Danger Essay -- Technology Computers Communication

Internet Addicts in Danger Internet chat rooms have become a devastating disadvantage to the social interaction and growth of people in the world. More and more of the world’s youth are becoming addicted to Internet chat rooms. Not only are Internet chat room relationships leading to impersonal contact of people hiding flaws behind anonymity, they are leading to the abduction of many underage individuals. In an article published in The Age, a magazine in Melbourne, Australia, Doctor Mubarak Rahamathulla has researched teenagers that have become "pathologically addicted" to Internet chat rooms. Rahamathulla argues that this addiction could damage their social skills as well as their ability to form intimate relationships. Rahamathulla says that "The young people who are introverts who are having difficulties establishing a rapport with others are going to go deeper into these kinds of forums to interact with others, that will further shrink their social network." In Rahamathulla’s research he found that while Internet chat rooms are not the ideal form of communication for most of these "addicted" teens, it is better than no interaction at all. The research revealed that these teens are lonely, usually unpopular and that chat rooms contribute to some teenagers fearing one on one situations. Internet chat rooms do not seem like they are targeting this specific demographic, when it is considered that there are chat rooms for basically every interest any human in the world could think of. So, if Internet chat rooms are not targeting lonely, unpopular teenagers, but those are for the most part the people becoming "addicted" to these chat rooms, are these chat rooms making the people who are interested in them addicted and lonely ... ...there is no immediate solution for the problem that is at hand. But it is a problem that needs to be addressed. Internet chat rooms are making the worlds youth into anti-social, lonely people. Internet chat rooms are enticing children to go out and meet much older people that they should not be associating with and no one is stopping them. Parents and Internet companies both need to make drastic changes for the benefit of the world’s youth. Works Cited Barr, Elizabeth "Face the Music". 17 January. 2003 BCT Reporter "Should there be tighter laws governing the Internet?". UK Newsweek Regional Press. 25 July. 2003 Bruce, Iain "Fishnet Stalking; from the erotic to the pornographic, sex on the Internet is booming". The Sunday Herald. 8 December. 2002 Nader, Carol "Introvert Internet Addicts and ‘Social Risk’". The Age. 2 October. 2003 Statistics